Readings

Summary vs. Analysis

This unit should help us to develop SUMMARY and ANALYSIS skills. To help us distinguish between the two terms, view these two short videos — the Shmoop video, “Summary vs. Analysis,” and the Smrt English video, “How to Write a Summary.”

 

 

A summary provides a brief statement explaining the main points of something. A summary should be a short version of a longer original source

To summarize, provide a sentence (or brief paragraph) explaining the following elements:

  • Who: Those involved
  • What: The event or topic covered
  • When: Time, period, era, night or day
  • Where: The location, distance, place
  • Why: The cause or causes
  • How: The process(es)

Rhetorical analysis considers the context of a text, focusing on audience, purpose, and these three rhetorical appeals:

  1. Logos: Logical appeal
    • Reason and evidence
    • Often cites: Facts, statistics, and data
  2. Ethos: Credibility appeal
    • Fair and considerate
    • Knowledgeable and trustworthy
    • Often cites: Quotations of authority and superiority
  3. Pathos: Emotional appeal
    • Feelings of the audience
    • Often cites: Pitiful or emotional example

Tips on Formal Writing 

All major assignments in the course should use “formal writing.” By formal writing, we are referring more to the format and purpose of the writing, rather than just the tone. The term emphasizes that the assignments should adhere to a specific structure and style suitable for official and academic purposes, rather than simply using a formal tone (although that is often appropriate, too).

Here are some tips to write formally — and effectively — in this course, and in other areas of life, now and in the future.

In formal writing, it’s best to avoid addressing readers directly. Refrain from using first- or second-person (I, you, we) whenever you can. Phrasing like that used to be the standard, but has largely been abandoned now. Further, in contemporary formal writing, transitional phrasing is much reduced compared to what it once was. So, in general, rather than introducing that I/you/we will now discuss a topic, just discuss the topic.

Always proofread for clarity. I suggest reading your writing out loud, slowly, word for word, (preferably to someone else who can help you). This is the quickest and least painful way to identify awkward phrasing and to figure out what phrases need further polishing before submitting your work,

Please proofread carefully for minor errors. Sentence by sentence. Check every line for punctuation and capitalization errors. Make certain that you capitalize proper nouns correctly. I also recommend Grammarly; it can help enormously — including in your browser for online assignments — and it’s free!

It’s best to italicize (select the text, type Ctrl + i) any words that are not in English, such as logosethos, and pathos — which are not capitalized (unless at the start of a sentence).

Pro-tip: When writing a rhetorical analysis, it is often best to go in that order because then you lay out the facts first (logos), then are free to consider their impact in terms of ethos (credibility) and pathos (emotional appeal), without having to re-list the same elements over and over. Remember that there is often overlap in an element’s appeal to logos, ethos, and/or pathos, all at once.

Remember, while some context may be helpful, when you’re primarily graded on rhetorical analysis, focus on the analysis itself. Avoid writing too much describing the readings, summarizing an entire story (limit the recap to just the relevant portions), or offering extensive background or history. Focused writing is strong writing. Try to offer insights and observations that go deeper than the obvious.

Brief, focused paragraphs are better than long and rambling paragraphs. Just like this one!

Contemporary writers work to keep each paragraph tightly focused on a single point, along with the ideas that immediately follow, as spelled out in the first/topic sentence. Page-long paragraphs are long gone (250 words or more) and serve as a warning to readers (and instructors!) that the writing may be unfocused, rambling, and disorganized.

Avoid informal phrasing in formal writing, dude. It totally, like, stops the flow of ideas a lot and undercuts what you’re trying to say and all that. You know what I mean?

Just make your points once. Offer specific details to illustrate — and PROVE — your points, then move on.

In formal writing, try to avoid anything that sounds extreme — overstatement, oversimplification, or hyperbole (pronounced, hi-PER-bow-lee). When we exaggerate, doubts may arise in the minds of readers because, when we are only partly right, we’re partly wrong, too. Just make your points, without exaggeration, and move on.

Be sure to properly cite any quotations or research sources that contributed to your work.

In formal writing, when referring to people (we don’t personally know), we write their full names at first, and use their last names for the rest, which may sometimes include their title(s). For instance, the first instance of “Martin Luther King, Jr.” would be followed later in the paper by referring to “Dr. King,” “Rev. King,” or simply, “King.” (If you were discussing his academic achievements and intellectual work, “Dr. King” would be more appropriate. If you were focusing on his religious leadership and spiritual influence, “Rev. King” would be more suitable.) The same pattern is used for authors of academic journals, although in our context, you don’t have to use their full names the first time. Be sure you spell and punctuate their names properly, though (including that comma and period in “Martin Luther King, Jr.”).

In formal writing, it is important to use accurate proper nouns and respectful descriptions. For example, when referring to people of African descent in the United States, the term “Black Americans” is commonly used, with both “Black” and “Americans” capitalized to acknowledge their cultural and historical significance. The term “African Americans” is also used by some, but it is important to recognize that not all Black individuals in the United States are of African descent. There are also, of course, Black people outside the United States. It is essential to respect the preferences of the group being referred to and use language that is inclusive and reflects their identity.

Additionally, when referring to individuals of European descent, the term “white Americans” is appropriate, with “white” written in lowercase — to avoid suggesting any assumption of racism on their part. In all cases, it is important to be mindful of accuracy, and being both sensitive and respectful when discussing racial and ethnic identities.

Finally, I suggest including subheadings in longer assignments. They can help writers realize where they’re being muddled or redundant. They also help readers follow along by helping emphasize the organization of the paper, enhancing clarity. In MLA, subheadings are bold text on the left margin. I use them in your coursework; see if they enhance the clarity of what’s written here. Can they help enhance the clarity of your writing, too?

 


 

Complete these readings as you work through Unit Three: